Design of Phenomenological Research

Design of Phenomenological ResearchThis is a philosophical movement concerned with the study of conscious begin, from the point of idea of the first person (Moran, 2000). There is emphasis on the intentionality of experience that is, the idea that conscious experience is directed towards nearly phenomena, rather than being merely aimless. such purposefulness is commonly contained in the meaning that the first person ascribes to his or her experience. Human experience is said to be conscious, meaning that we be somehow usually aware of an experience as it is happening, as opposed to for example Sigmund Freuds psychoanalytic view in which experience isnt always conscious. cognizant experience is defined in broad terms, incorporating a wide range of factors including sensation, perception, objects, events, time, self, others, space, sequence, emotion, logic, and so on, with particular emphasis on the meanings of these experiences (two individuals whitethorn have exactly the sam e experience, heretofore attach completely disparate meanings). Historically, phenomenology has been a fragmented philosophy, with numerous variations emerging and becoming established especially since the early part of the 20th century, deriving from plant life of philosophers like Martin Heidegger, Jean-Paul Satre, Edmund Husserl, G.W.F Hegel, Max Scheler, and others. The basic tradition of Anglo-Saxon European philosophy as we know it has been dominated by phenomenology throughout the last century, and currently provides the philosophical basis for a major part of clinical studies, usually subsumed under the heading of qualitative research.EXPERIMENTAL (SCIENTIFIC) APPROACHScientific experimentation forms part of the wider tralatitious positivist doctrine, developed by Auguste Comte during the early part of the nineteenth century (Coolican, 1994). Positivism dictates that only phenomena that can be quantified and measured, are worthy of scientific experimentation. emergent f rom this philosophy is the hypothetico-deductive doctrine, which means making observations, developing theories, formulating and streamleting predictions from those theories, and modifying or supporting the theory accordingly. This procedure is what many detectives refer to as the scientific method. Experimentation is a great deal regarded as the gold standard in scientific (clinical) research. It entails the deliberate manipulation of variables under controlled conditions, in order to establish causality, and important factor in clinical settings. Control is achieved primarily by random allocation of participants to conditions, effectively distributing any differences between people evenly across the conditions, and whence balancing things out. some(prenominal) experiments are also conducted in a controlled surroundings, such as laboratory. Experimentation is underpinned by a number of assumptions, including the idea that people can be disjunct from their social environment and treated as a group rather than as individuals. Further more(prenominal), it is possible for the researcher to remain objective, remaining distant from the subject and hence having no influence on their behaviour.RESEARCH METHODSAims and ObjectivesPhenomenological research is exploratory, seeking to understand peoples conscious experiences through that persons own viewpoint, what ever it may be.By contrast experimentation focuses on testing specific hypotheses, which have usually been selected by the researcher, hence reflecting the researchers own perspectives, rather than those of the participant. For example, take the case of a uncomplaining who has recently being diagnosed as anorexic. She is receiving treatment but there is a need for research to establish whether the treatment is having the desired effect. Phenomenology will focus on the patients own conscious experience of anorexia and recovery, and the meaning she attaches to these experiences. For example, the individu al may view anorexia as a devastating experience with smelling that she is non recovering despite her treatment. The whole experience may have created a sense of revulsion about her condition and pessimism about the recovery. The phenomenologist will try to explore to use Husserls Greek terms her noesis or intentional act of consciousness (e.g. her beliefs and feelings) and noematic, meaning the object or phenomena (anorexia, recovery). By contrast, the experimenter will aim to test hypotheses that the treatment is or isnt effective in eliciting recovery, which will be appraised in quantifiable terms, such as changes in body-mass index, inception sugar levels, and blood pressure. Given the different aims/objectives (i.e. exploration, hypothesis testing), the experimenter and phenomenologist could arrive at completely different conclusions. For example, the patient may feel and believe they are not getting mend albeit experimental (medical) parameters suggest otherwise.Researc h Questions HypothesesPhenomenological questions typically exploratory, contending how an individual has consciously experienced a phenomenon, such as illness or disease. There are no hypotheses. The question can take any one of several forms, depending on the area of phenomenology. For example, existential phenomenology will inquire about the persons experience of destitute choice (e.g. in selecting their treatment), generative phenomenology will explore the meaning of the phenomena to the individual with reference to historical factors (e.g. the way a disease has historically been interpreted in their society), while a transcendental phenomenology will ask about the persons conscious experiences completely excluding questions about the external environment (e.g. how the disease is experienced, careless(predicate) the hospital environment, treatments, and other external factors). Experimental questions are very much more precise, asking whether there is a family between two o r more variables. The question is usually accompanied by testable hypotheses, which specify whether or not a relationship exists and the direction (i.e. positive or negative) of the relationship. So, for example the experimenter will ask whether a particular intervention will cure the illness, accompanied by a hypothesis (e.g. the intervention significantly improves health outcomes). Unlikely phenomenology, the experimental border on rarely involves exploratory or open-ended questions as it is a requirement that all variables (independent and dependent) are stipulate a priori. However, statements of hypotheses can be two-tailed whereby the precise relationship expected between two variables is left open (i.e. not specified).DesignPhenomenological research is typically unstructured, with no specific design or format. The researcher is at liberty to proceed as they see fit, merely ensuring that they conform to the basic tenets of philosophy, notably emphasising the first-person and t argeting their conscious experience. The setting is usually realistic or naturalistic, so for example, no move is made to remove the patient from their natural environment1. Experimental research is traditionally highly structured. There are specific designs available to the researcher, each(prenominal) with set parameters or protocols. Randomisation of subjects to conditions is critical, to minimise the counfounding effects of nuisance variables. Therefore it is essential to recruit a sample of individuals who serve as participants. They can both be exposed to all conditions of the experiment, leading to a within-groups design, or designate to just one of the conditions, creating a between-groups design. Independent and dependent variables must be specified clearly, so that there is no uncertainty about the conditions being manipulated, the direction of causality, and outcome measures. The setting is typically artificial for example a laboratory with a low degree of realism. It is important to point out that some phenonemonological research assumes that conscious experience is a function of neurological activity in the brain, know as neurophenomenology. This overlap with physiological sciences means that an experimental design may be used to establish the authenticity of certain aspects of conscious experience (e.g. find out whether an experience of motor activity is accompanied by electrical activity in the appropriate regions of the brain). info CollectionData is typically collected utilise one-to-one interviews between the researcher and the participant, rather similar to private sessions between a patient and their psychiatrist or psychotherapist. The interviews are typically open-ended, thereby let things show themselves, to use Heideggers terms. Data collection in experimentation may involve one or more techniques including observational methods (participant and non-participant observation, role play and simulation, the diary method, and natura listic observation), interviews and surveys (psychometric tests, structured/semi-structured interviews, clinical method). Whatever technique is used, the goal is to generate quantitative data which would allow mathematical assessments of reliability and validity, and also statistical analysis. Reliability relates to the consistency of a participants responses, while validity indicates whether the appropriate phenomenon of interest is being measured in the first place. Questions in interviews and surveys are typically close-ended, so that the participant can only respond using a pre-determined range of options provided by the experimenter.Data AnalysisThe phenomenological method assumes first-person familiarity with the particular experience of interest to the researcher. Data analysis essentially entails description of a conscious experience exactly as it is lived by the participant and presented to the researcher, who does not interfere. The researcher may then attempt to interpret the experience from their particular phenomenological perspective. For example, hermeneutical phenomenologists, such as Heidegger, will try to make sense of the experience by placing it in a social and linguistic context (e.g. who else is involved, and how do the parties communicate). By contrast a naturalistic constitutive phenomenologist will relate the experience to nature, seeking out links with natural environment (e.g. climate, culture, ecology). Regardless of their area of phenomenology, it is essential for the researcher to analyse the type of experience presented, identifying any unique features for further investigation. More recently, data analysis may entail a logico-semantic cost that aims to identify the truth of an experience (e.g. this disease can be cured) and the conditions necessary to satisfy an intention (e.g. I will feel better if I take my medicine). Phenomenologists also use modern techniques for analysing qualitative data, such as thematic analysis, typolo gies, quotations, and so on. Data analysis in experimentation requires the use of statistical tests in order to establish the significance of any observed changes in the dependent variable, following manipulation of the independent variable. Usually, a level of significance is set, depicting a specific probability (e.g. .05) that observed differences between groups or conditions occurred by chance. Typically, the probability of chance must be qualified to or less than the chosen significance level in order for the test results to be regarded as significant. There is no attempt by the experimenter to call in any interpretation or subjective analysis on the data without the use of statistical tools, which introduce some mathematical objectivity. However, the likelihood of obtaining significant results is often affected by analytic and methodological considerations, such as the sample size and the sensitivity of the chosen statistical test. Furthermore, results that are statistically significant may nevertheless have little or no clinical significance, for example in terms of Quality Life Years, and morbidity and mortality rates.Table 1 Differences between phenomenological and experimental approaches (selected issues)PhenomenologicalExperimentalMethodUnstructuredStructuredResearch QuestionExploratoryHypothesis testingPerspectiveFirst-personThird-personSubject MatterConscious experienceQuantifiable phenomenaData AnalysisIntuitiveStatisticalSettingNaturalisticArtificialClinical ApplicationDetailed insightEfficacyclinical PRACTICE Phenomenological and experimental approaches both have an important role to play in clinical practice. Nevertheless, each method may offer very different perspectives on the same medical quandary, or may be more suited to certain problems rather than others. Consider the effectiveness of nurse-led thrombolysis on patients present at an Accidence Emergency unit with cardiac symptoms. A phenomenological approach would be suitable for obta ining detailed insights into nurses feelings about their effectiveness in administering the procedure, their confidence, doubts, anxieties, suspicions, resentments, and other feelings and beliefs that may formulate their clinical competence or otherwise. This may provide managers and consultants with valued ideas about how to support nurses, hence improving service delivery. By contrast the experimental approach will be more amenable to establishing the clinical effectiveness of nurse-initiated thrombolysis, for example in terms of the percentage of fatalities and door-to-needle times. A E units could be randomly assigned to a condition in which nurses implement thrombolytic procedures, or a control condition in which the intervention is performed by busy consultants. Patient ecstasy rates and hospital delays could then be compared across both conditions using statistical procedures. Although phenomenology and experimentation approach the problem differently, findings from both p aradigms will have some clinical benefit if service delivery is ultimately improved.BIBLIOGRAPHYCoolican, H. (1994) Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology. London Hodder Stoughton.Moran, D. (2000) Introduction to Phenomenology. London and New YorkRoutledge.Smith, B. Smith, D.W. (eds.) (1995) The Cambridge Companion to HusserlCambridge and New York Cambridge University Press.Wikipedia (2006) Phenomenology online. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Availablefrom http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology/ Accessed 22 July 2006.Footnotes1 Although in the interest of privacy researcher and patient may seek a quiet location that may be somewhat atypical of the subjects usual setting.

Effect of Color and Word Length on Memory Performance

Effect of Color and Word Length on Memory Performance nonobjectiveThe purpose of this drive was to examine the effect of wile and phrase length on keeping performance. Seventy nine undergraduatecollege students from Disted college, aged from 19 to 23 of both male and female genders were recruited for the study. The studywas a 32 combine order design, There be two independent vari sufficients in this sample which are word length and colors of language, bit the dependent variable is memory performance. Results showed that there was no signifi send wordt change in aslant haggling onmemory performance, while varietys in word length showed a significant increase in memory performance. The results supportedour secondary hypothesis which claimed that participants were more able to suppose shorter words than grander words. On thecontrary, our primary hypothesis was not supported. In conclusion, word length may shed a positive repair on memory performance.IntroductionIt is com mon knowledge that we humans are more attracted to colorful objects like pictures or sour films than black andwhite colors. It is as well as well known that young children, especially babies and toddlers are particularly attracted to shinny and strikingcolors. Such instances may have piqued the curiosity of scholars in the old geezerhood to answer the question why people are moreattracted to colorful stimulus, sadly for the scholars the capacity to study this topic is not readily available until young times. Sinceancient antiquity, colors on clothes not only do people look more distinct from 1 another, reliable colors in any case inspire awe andshows status and power. For example, in the east Chinese emperors have always wore gold color to signify their status as son ofheaven, while in the west Roman emperors and the aristocrats wear purple so show their status in society.In todays society, an individual in the academic field is expected to be able to do many tasks, one of the most beta skills inour society is to be able to remember important things. For example, in college we constantly need to remember important termsandwords, these cultivation that we have learned is to be tested in quizzes and exams. College students that do not have goodattention focus and memory are looked down upon by their lecturers and peers beca hold they mostly under perform in their academicperformance. Fortunately for this type of college students, as time progress more efficient methods of studying and memorizing isbeing discove flushed or proposed. One of these methods is mind mapping, the method of mind mapping basically uses the in effect(p) side(color and creativity) together with the left side (words and logic) of the brain to increase memory performance (Astrid, n.d).As such, it can be seen that both color and words could be essential component in memory performance. Working together,both aspects could be used to aid or test the performance of a students memory capability. connatural to mind maps, word length anddifferent kind of colors could affect the overall memory performance.Theoretical FrameworkThe human mind has a actually complicated way of processing and memorizing tuition. Among the many theories thatattempted to explain how memory works, Baddeleys working memory model seemed to provide one of the best explanations. Thismodel was created by Baddely and Hitch to improve upon the rather obsolete multi- repositing model, they argued that the multi-storemodel was too simplified. Their working memory model seeks to explain that short term memory has components/subsystems thatactively manipulates information that it receives (Miyake Shah, 1999). The model has four important components which were theCentral Executive, Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad, phonological loop and Episodic Buffer. They further elaborated that workingmemory was made up of the central executive which controls the operation of two subsystems the phonological loop and t he visuo-spatial sketch pad. The final component, episodic buffer was meant to be a back up store that connects working memory with longterm memory (McLeod, 2008).The working memory model relates to color and word length collectible to the visuo-spatial sketchpad and the phonological loop. Thevisuo-spatial sketchpad stores visual information such as word shapes and colors for a short period of time (Logie, 2002). Ourworking memory was very centre on color be causal agent colored objects of an items leaves a deeper impression on our memory(Cercone Learning, n.d). While, some people tend to recall words better when they pronounce it while memorizing, their ability torecall is stirred by the word length, which is stored in the phonological loop (Logie, 2002).Past LiteratureAs time goes by more and more past enquiry was made to address the issue of colored words and word length on memoryperformance. Although most look into only investigated on colored words and memory performance or word length on memoryperformance, their contribution were highly regarded. One such study was made by Mustafar Dzulkifli (2013), their study wasfocused on investigating the effect of ground color on memory performance. In their study, they invited 90 undergraduate students ,age ranges from 19 to 22 to participate in the test. They conducted their experiment by using between group design, therewas three groups of participant that were habituated different treatments. The first group was inclined red colored background slides, whilethe second group was given background slides with no color. The third group was be given background slides that have a combination of color and no-color background to be shown alternately. Their research results ensnare that most shape with coloredbackground will be recalled better than shape with non-color background.another(prenominal) research was made by Campoy (2008) which was made to investigate the effect of word length in short-term memory.T he research invited 50 undergraduate university students. The research was conducted by using two participants in each session intwo different sound-attenuated booths. In the booths the computers shows a stimulus (five-word series study list) presented in blockletter at the rate 300 ms per word. After a delay 3,000 ms, the second sequence (test list) was shown in lower case at the samespeed. Lastly, a question mark was revealed and the participants will press key 1 or 2 when they decided the word orders in bothseries were different or same. Results revealed that a list of short four-phoneme words were better remembered than a lists of longsix-phoneme words.Among the many past research, there was one research that stands out the most. Research make by Le Castillo (2009) wasmeant to investigate on the effects of color and word length on verbal working memory. In this research, 61 business professionalswere invited to participate. The research was conducted by first requesting partic ipants to memorize short words (12 seconds) andlong words (30 seconds), accordingly participants were requested to recall short words within 24 seconds and long words within 60seconds. Participants was then asked to do demographic questionnaires and allow in them together with their answer papers. Theresults showed that five-syllable words were the most hard to remember, with memory performance difference much more obviousbetween Caucasians and none-Caucasians.Description of StudyIn this study, we were much different compared to past studies because we focused on both length of words and color of words,as stated in our ERB (refer to Appendix D) Compared to past research like the one done by Huchendorf who mainly focuses on theeffects of color on memory or the one done by Neath Naire that was focused on word length and short term memory, ours weremore complex and in-dept because we break both aspects. Among the many studies that was made, our experiment mostresembles the one by L e Castillo. In Le Castillo, one of the main aspects they investigated was the capacity of memory amongsixty one business professionals. Compared to their experiment, our experiment not only was focused on a different sample, whichisthe college student sample, we also have a larger amount of participants which provides us a greater variety of culturalbackgroundand memory capability.The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of color and word length on memory performance. Our experiment wasconducted by separating all our participants into two equally large sized group, then the participants were directed to the short wordor long word experiment style to do the experiment. In the ways the participants were given one hour to attempt to memorize asmany words as they can and then given another minute to recall and write down the words they can remember, participants werethengiven one minute to sang-froid down and rest before runing the next treatment. In our experiment, w e outlined two hypothesis thatwaswritten in our ERB. Based on past research by Huchendorf (2007), Le Castillo (2009) and Neath Naire (1995), wehypothesized that unassailable colored words is easier to remember than cool colored words and shorter word length is easier to beremembered than longer word length.Practical Implication of StudyAn implication of this study was that the finding could be used in class styles to assist teachers and lecturers in guidingstudents. Teachers can use this knowledge to teach students on doing mind maps and teach them to use highlighters to highlightcertain words, the highlighted words will increase the capability of a students memory.MethodsDesignThe experiment was an experimental type research design that was meant to investigate the cause and effect of theindependent and dependent variable. The research have two independent variables and three levels. The independent variableswere words length (single syllable/three syllables) and color of the w ords (black), warm color (red) and the cool color (green). Thedependent variable was using memory performance of number of correct words recalled. Also, the research is a 32 mixed methoddesign, the reason the research was using mixed method was because the design contained elements from between and withinsubject.ParticipantsThere was approximately seventy nine participants that came from different races, the participants were also recruited from themany different courses of Disted college. Their age range was between 19 and 23 years old while their gender was both male andfemale. The students participated the experiment due to their own willingness and initiative. Furthermore, experimenters hadrequested permission from the DISTED Student council to obtain lecture schedules to see which class was available andpermissionfrom individual lecturers to recruit students. The participants was recruited through random sampling method theexperimenters had approached students around DISTED co llege cafeteria, library and pre-selected classes.MaterialThe experiment had used two computers and two projectors to depict the different colored and worded experiment slides,another material was the computer packet Microsoft power point, specifically the slides was made using the software. The twentywords from each of the color worded slides (refer to Appendix B) are retrieved from MRC Psycholinguistic Database, University ofWestern Australia, School of Psychology. Other materials include SPSS program to calculate the results output (refer to AppendixC)and smart phone built in stop watches that was used to time the experiment sessions (timing one minute for memorizing words orone minute to recall the list of words).ProcedureThe study was conducted in two classrooms each equipped with a projector, the experiment was conducted across several(prenominal)sessions with a random amount of participants in each session. The participants were first given a brief explanation about the natu reand purpose of the experiment and then the experimenters requested the participants to sign the consent form (refer to Appendix A).Next, each participant was randomly assigned by counting one and two, it is arranged like that so that both groups would be equal innumber .The first group was asked to remain in the current room, while the second group was brought to the other room by one of theexperimenters. Also, the first group was given a list of shorter words (one syllable) with three different colored treatments controlcolor (black) ,warm color (red) and cool color (green). Similar to the first group, the second group was given the same treatment,except that the word length was longer (three syllables).The experiment was started when participants were given one minute to remember a list of black colored words from theprojected slides on screen and another 1 minute to write it down on the paper, after that the participants were given one minute tocool down. Once the participants were ready for the next treatment, the participants was given one minute to remember a list of redcolored words and then another minute to write it down, then the participants were given another minute to cool down before the lasttreatment. Finally, the participants was given other minute to remember a list of green colored words and one minute to write it down.Once all the words that can be recalled was written down, the experimenters collected the papers from the participants and theparticipants were dismissed.DiscussionAs seen in the results section written above, our experiments outcome concluded that color of words generally do not affectmemory performance. However, our results also showed that disregarding the length of words, colored words have significantrelationship with memory performance. On the other hand, word length has a positively significant relationship with memoryperformance. Among our two hypotheses, the word length and memory performance hypothesis was highly s upported by our results.More specifically, our hypothesis that mentioned short words were more easily remembered than longer words.The results of our study was consistent and supported by past literature, research findings by Campoy (2008) and Le Castillo(2009) were two such examples. Their research results had shown that people give it easier to remember words with less syllablesor phonemes. The consensus between the two past literature and our experiment was that, lesser amount of syllables allowedworking memory to process information faster and more efficiently. However, our experiment was not supported by Mustafar Dzulkifli (2013). Their results did not coincide with our results on color, they found that shapes with colored background was recalledbetter than shape with non-color background. A possible reason on why our results was not the same as some past research wasbecause, we focused our experiment on both color and word length, instead of just one of it.It should be ackno wledged that there was one failed manipulations in our experiment, that particular failure was our coloredwordmanipulation, it is due to this reason that our first hypothesis failed. Also, there was a few at odds(p) variables that might haveaffected the experiment. One of the confounding variable was the experiments starting time, the experimenters had noted that therewere some inaccuracies on the timing of some experiment sessions. Another reason was due to the hour we conducted ourexperiment. For example, we conducted our experiment on late afternoon, it could be that most participants were weary, fatiguedandfrustrated after a long day in class, such distractions would leave the participants less capable to focus on our experiment. Thethird confounding variable was due to temperature, one of the rooms was rather cold while the other was rather warm, it should benoted that the differences in room temperature could affect the performance of the participants. In order to solve these problems, theexperimenters had taken steps such as adjusting the airconditiong of both rooms to be the same and set timers to start theexperiments simultaneously.Throughout our experiment, we realized certain important things that would prove beneficial for future studies. Experimentsmade in future could be improved upon by gathering a larger amount of participants from different age, race and background, doingso would have given the future experimenters a better represented result based on a more diverse data. Future experiments couldalso be improved by using culturally neutral words, the usage of such words would have allowed certain participants to perform betterwithout a cultural word barrier. Another suggestion was that future experiments could have done their experiments earlier, this issuggested so that the participants would be able to do the experiment on their peaked performance.The implication of this study was that it would benefit any individual that is in the academic world or the business world. Astudentwould have found this experiment helpful because our results would have assisted them in their academic performance. Ourexperiment results would have shown them that making short notes would have made them more efficient in their studies. Teachersand lecturers could also use our experiment results to form a more effective study materials, study materials that are shorter andsimpler would be more effective for a students studies. Another benefit was that advertising corporations could have used ourexperiment results to assist them in creating an attractive and memorable advertisement in the minds of consumers.As a final conclusion, this study was conducted to investigate the relationship between word length, word color and memoryperformance. The findings showed that participants found it easier to remember words that are shorter and more warm colored orlonger words with cooler color. Further studies should be conducted with a larger sample popula tion.

Discuss the meaning of childhood

Discuss the meaning of tikeishnessThe inclination of a sister is contested through divulge the world. It is first important to be intimate the difference between the terms child and puerility. The dictionary defines a child as a boy or girl from the time of birth until he or she is an hand somewhat, or a son or daughter of any time which is a very vague generalization (Cambridge dictionary, 2009) Defining the word childhood reconciles similar problems, as again the dictionary is of very little assistance merely stating that childhood is the time when some bingle is a child (Cambridge dictionary, 2009). It is therefore immanent to find a more valid definition of a child. Many f re nominateors affect the air a childhood is defined, much(prenominal) as the period of accounting in which the characterization was develop as well as the culture it has transpired from. The thesis of what a child and what childhood is will not be the analogous globally, although there may be similar themes around which the definition is ground. These similarities oft include the use of age as a boundary for childhood, the exploration of mental and biological aspects to childhood and the impression of independence. mill about (2003 8) also outlines the cultural, geographical, historical and gender based theories on what childhood is. A child in a terzetto world country will have experiences that argon a polar opposite to that of a typical child from a western country. This difference in experiences therefore has an effect on the definition given by that positionicular culture as to what childhood is. Ergo, an important question that arises is whether childhood is shortened by experience or enriched. The UK defines a child as any person, regardless of gender, under the age of eighteen, in accordance with UN policy based upon the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) (NSPCC, 2009).This is a basic biological definition of a child that is accepted by the majority of UN countrie s. Gamage (1992) however argues that childhood end around the age of ten. Clearly, formation childhood is not a clear cut task.There atomic number 18 different angles to quality at when defining childhood from a socio-economic thought. Cultural differences ar a massive concomitantor that chooses to be taken into account when attempting to define childhood. Culture affects the way a child is seen which in turn affects the individual child and how they perceive their early role in society. It is the variety in culture globally which leads to ethical complications in cross-cultural adoption, as the UNCRC outlines that a child has the remedy to know and practice its cultures traditions, however if a child is uprooted from its original setting, does that mean that it should disregard the surrounding it began sprightliness in favour of adopting new traditions and languages? We oft act in an ethnocentric style which is the opinion that ones consume way of life is natural, correct , indeed the only true of being human (Schultz and Lavenda 1990 32) Ethnocentrism barelyt end til now be seen in the UNCRC. Whilst it complies with human rights, it can be seen to clash with individual societies for example some tribes have entirely different traditions and regimes for the treatment of children likend to that outlined in the UN principle. It is raw to affirm that a tribes way of doing things is incorrect yet some of their traditions can be seen as cruel and as infringing the articles of the UNCRC. The ignorance between cultures can create an melodic line of fear. The lack of understanding we have for unkn experience societies makes it difficult for us to understand their traditions and how they affect their societies definition of childhood. New problems arise however if we become all consumed with legislation and political correctness for example in Britain schools have begun to replace their nativity plays with a more generalised holiday themed performance . The attempts to be politically correct are preventing British children from learning about their own culture. brunet (1996 ) refers to seeing children as passive recipients of knowledge as adults in waiting which is interesting as it leans towards the root word that children are perhaps not people in their own rights, merely half filled vessels. This is seemingly a very odd perspective, as it is victorious away the idea of childhood being a key stage in its own right, and focalization on the concept of it reasonable being part of the nurture to becoming an adult. Nutbrown points out the difficulties in this view, as it infers that the world created for children is not based on their contemporary necessarily. She writesPerspectives on childhood that include the concept of children as adults in waiting do not value children as learners and therefore create systems of educating and designing curricula, that can be narrow minded quite a than open minded and which transmit t o children rather than challenge children to use their powers as thinkers and nurture their humanity.Kakar (1981 18) points out that this is not a global view, and as always, culture is tiny to defining childhood. Kakar claims that the word childhood is a fully meaningful word-in-itself in certain areas in countries such as India and China. This emphasis on the word mover that the period of life known as childhood is to these cultures an individually important part of life, not just a prerequisite to adulthood. It is particularly interesting to compare different experts key social constructions of childhood. Richard Mills (2003 9) looks at the ideas of children as innocent, apprentices, and vulnerable whereas in a rather different approach Chris Jenks (1990 36) explores children as savage, Dionysian and Apollonian. Mills concept of an apprentice being a construction of childhood links to Nutbrown as it refers to the idea that children are merely adults in training. This is a grim theme throughout defining childhood. Mills, when referring to children as innocent, claims that they are in claim of protection, and are representative of good and purity. He talks about the child growing through the gradual acquiring of secret knowledge.For Postman these secrets are to do with sexual relations, money, violence, illness, death and language (Mills )If Postman is correct in saying that obtaining such information equates to the end of childhood, and so by that understanding, it is intermediate to say that a child who has suffered sexual abuse or the death of a loved one is no longer a child. Postmans ideas can be linked to the ideas of class defining childhood. It is generally fair to say that children from more financially stable stickergrounds front to have in general a more idyllic childhood than those less fortunate. However this doesnt necessarily increase the time that they are a child if Postman is to be believed, as class has little impact on how or when a child discovers the adult secrets. Obviously they are less liable(predicate) to encounter child labour, however they are not automatically protected from death or sexual knowledge. In a broader sense, parallels to this can be seen internationally, for example, the chances of a child being in labour or else of education are far higher in India than they are in France. The economic standing of a country has a knock on effect on how children are viewed socio-economically. In poorer countries childhood is cut short overdue to a need for redundant income, whereas in most Western countries, children enjoy a full education whilst earning a living is down to the parents. Gender is also a socio-economic aspect of defining childhood, as it is generally believed that girls mature sooner than boys. Does this therefore mean that if you are female, your childhood has been cut short in comparison to your male peers? If the answer is yes, then this should perhaps impact upon laws and legisla tion. For example, it could be possible that girls could have a younger age of employment to that currently enforced for both genders. This is not necessarily fair on either boys or girls, but it could be a possible way to further define childhood. It is clear that children are defined differently depending on the socio-economic background they come from, whilst this makes it difficult to pinpoint a precise definition of childhood, it is critical to appreciate all different views and ideas, whether or not they comply with our own views.Historically, the constructions of childhood span a range of different phases. Perhaps most importantly is the impart of Aries (Palaiologou 2009) who claims that childhood as a concept wasnt even around until the sixteenth century at which point in England, the Christian church began to get involved in educating children with very basic Sunday schools. The ideas out forth by Aries are a source of much debate as they raise a lot of questions and there are theorists who take issue with the ideas put forth by Aries and who claim that childhood has always been present throughout history. If Mills is to be believed when talking about children being in need of both physical and emotional protection, then surely Aries cannot be correct. The parental urge to protect must have been somewhat present throughout all of history, almost like an animal instinct. A key argument against Aries is that in Ancient Greece there was a development of the idea of education in a more formal style. However, this doesnt necessarily mean that childhood was seen as a particularly separate stage, and it still only existed very loosely. Prominent aspects of British childhoods such as fairytales did not exist purely for children in Ancient Greece, but as entertainment for the whole family. In his go for Centuries of childishness Aries highlights the fact that as soon as children were able to exist without needing constant care then they became seen in the same way as adults. Yet, there is still a stage where it is recognized that the infant needs care and attention from an adult, so this can be seen as recognition of childhood. unmatched explanation for this limitation on recognizing childhood as a key phase has groundings in the economic needs throughout history. Children were often required to work from a young age as is still often the case and so this had the effect of often calling a halt to their time as a child. The rise in popularity of Christianity led to the beginning of childhood as we know it today. The concepts of children as innocent as mentioned previously began to materialize, and with it a stronger sense of the need to protect the younger generation. The church stepped in at the helm of education and began to mould the youth. There was a focus on removing the devilish side from children, and it can be seen that the church was leaning towards indoctrination rather than education. Evangelicals took it upon themselve s to fight against the possibility of children committing sins. Along with the idea of children as innocent, had come the idea that they as the future, needed to be water-washed of sins the implication being that they had already sinned. Obviously families were quite enthusiastic about this need to remove the devil and keep their children pure. It wasnt until 1876 that education became compulsory for all children develop ten and under. However, childhood was still seen as just a prerequisite to adulthood, rather than a defined period of life in its own right. It was not just education and work that came early to children throughout history either. Marriage and children were on the agenda at the same time we would be moving into next-to-last schools. The laws for children were no different to that of adults and so children enjoyed no rights of their own. This is not dissimilar to criminal law in America, where children are tried in a similar way to adults. It wasnt until 1889 when children began to be recognized legally, and some pinpoint this as the beginning of childhood as we know it. Throughout history the definition of childhood has been vague and prostrate until more novelly, however it is key to look back at how childhood was viewed to understand how to define it in a more contemporary fashion.The specific needs and rights of children help us to define them further. The UNCRC (United Nations Convention on the Rights of Children) is a piece of UN legislation aimed to protect children globally, as well as outline a viscid set of guidelines for the rights of the child. As previously stated, the UN outlines the age of a child as being up to eighteen years of age for the majority of UN countries. The articles found in the UNCRC are not massively dissimilar to those based around general human rights. The main difference between the legal rights of a child and adult is, as articles five and eighteen outline, stating that the primary responsibility for the upbringing and development of the child is with the parent (UNCRC, Childrens Rights Alliance) This can be seen as a limitation to the childs rights, as they are somewhat dependant on an adult to ensure the rights outlined are provided for them. The legislation came about due to political pressure from various UN countries, which led to a domino effect as countries fell to pressure from more major players in the UN collaboration. The overall aim was seen as a way of making children equals in the world and redefine the way adults view them as completely separate from culture and society. It is also important in outlining the role of parents in a childs life with article eighteen focusing on parental responsibilities outlining that the parents have the primary responsibility for the upbringing and development of the child . Often the blame for a blow on behalf of parents is laid at the door of the government and various departments designed to ensure the safety of children. Whilst it is valid to say that in cases, such as the recent Baby P, some responsibility for such tragedies does need to be dealt to official bodies, it is also key to note that the parents or carers are, according to legislation, the people mainly liable for the protection of their child and as such should not be able to entirely pass of their wrong doings as the fault of the government for not monitoring them sufficiently. It is interesting to note that the UNCRC is has the highest rate of ratification compared to all other conventions, with only Somalia and the USA rejecting the convention. It has also been seen to directly affect the policies of the countries involved, for example, in Britain the introduction of both Child Matters. It can also be said that the legislation has assisted in changing traditional views of childhood. Children traditionally were often seen as half-formed adults rather than as individuals. In some ways, by defining childrens rights, and then being so similar to those of adults, its enabled people to stop seeing children as yet to be and instead focus on them as they are. Issues with the UNCRC legislation however, are the differences in the range of cultures it is applied to sometimes clash with the outlined rights of the child. This raises the problem of what is more important, culture or the fulfilment of a childs needs and the protection of their rights. The UNCRC itself outlines the importance of keeping children connected to their own heritage and culture with article thirty in particular focusing on the rights of children to enjoy his or her own culture.and to participate fully in cultural and artistic life. However it is sometimes difficult to comply with this without limiting the military posture of other aspects of the legislation. Also, whilst the UNCRC is an official agreement, it is not a law. There are no real penalties for not complying with the various parts of the legislation, and it is incredibly difficult to monitor. Cou ntries make reports either five years on development, which gives a rather stinted, separated view of how countries are implementing different schemes to corroborate with the legislation put forth. Unfortunately the UNCRC also raises some rather big political issues, such as the idea that the modern, western world is perhaps enforcing unattainable and unrealistic goals upon poorer countries. Not only does this lead to their underperformance, but also to conflict between their cultures and the legislation they are being presented with. Also, do people want to see children differently, and do children want their roles to heighten? All these are major issues raised by the implementation on this global legislation upon unequal and incredibly different countries. However, it isnt all negative. Overall, the positives of the UNCRC far outweigh the negatives as the need to protect and provide for the needs of children is crucial, and this legislation goes a long way in ensuring that child ren are protected in a suitable manner, even if its strong suit doesnt span the whole globe in an efficient manner.Children who are in labour rather than education are another construction of childhood to look at. Obviously the UNCRC has a clause aimed at preventing children from having full time jobs, especially that intrude with education but this cannot be successfully be implemented globally. Again, based on previously discussed concepts of childhood, it surely makes sense that if a child is at work then this is a blatant trespass upon their rights as outlined by the UNCRC and again, children are being thrust into a world of adult secrets. There is no glamorous side to child labour, the hours are often extreme, the pay slopped and the job itself more than often horrific for example young children forced into the sex trade. Their innocence robbed. Jobs such as this are in direct defiance of article thirty-two of the convention which states children are to be protected from econ omic exploitation and from performing any work which is hazardous. It is from the convention that a minimum age was applied to all jobs in the UK and other countries, and hours workable limited also. However, there are still approximately three hundred and fifty-two million children in labour deemed hazardous globally. The problem is that child labour is often not a choice for the child or the family, as they are forced into jobs due to economic desperation. Poverty is often so crippling that people have no option other than to allow their child to work. Bonded labour is common is some countries, which is where the child is basically pawned off for a sum of money, in exchange for their labour. Again, the UNCRC is placed under strain in this situation, as whilst such activity is understandably in breach of the legislation, it is fair to say that the UNCRC cannot prevent a family earning a living through any means possible in order to repress complete poverty. This on the face of it has an impact on defining childhood, as it is difficult to see a boy of seven who does a sixteen-hour shift in a sweat-shop as still being a child in the middle of childhood. Biologically and in accordance to law, he would be a child, but his obviously different lifestyle, compared to a typical British child, prevents him from being a true child.In conclusion, it is incredibly difficult to define childhood. In the contemporary climate, it is fair to say that a basis around age, as is stated in the UNCRC and a majority of countries domestic policies. The age of eighteen is perhaps too high from a biological stance, as puberty has basically reached its conclusion by this time, however psychologically it can be seen as advantageous. As has been highlighted, children are not emotionally ready for what may be referred to as adult topics, such as death, sex and money. The frequent introduction of these topics into childhoods seems to have no benefit to the child, in fact it seems in most cases to be detrimental to childrens happiness. Child labour, in particular the sex trade, is horrific not just biologically as children are expect to work long hours in jobs their bodies are not yet prepared for, but also the emotional impact it has can be seen to devastate lives. So in this sense, the age barrier often used when defining childhood is incredibly important.The legislation used to protect children is also key to defining them. The UNCRC, obviously outlines age as a specific part of the legislation, but also, looking at the rights themselves, and the emphasis on the need for protection and the focus on development is incredibly telling when trying to define childhood. As well as being an period of both biological and emotional fragility, usually defined by age, it is also a time during which individuals are dependent on adults, not just for material things, but also emotional support and love. Also, looking back through history highlights the importance of not undere stimating the importance of childhood as a period of life in its own right, rather than ignoring it as just a build-up to adult life. Obviously in some ways, it is a developmental period, preparing individuals for the future, however it is still a distinct section of life in its own right and should be valued as such.The implications of the different constructions of childhood are varied throughout the world. The historical aspects outline the importance of not ignoring childhood as a period in its own right. If we try to force an adult-centred curriculum on children rather than nurturing their abilities in the here and now it will lead to a generations of people confused about their identities, due to the lack of time they were given to develop themselves. In terms of schooling and policies for children, focusing on Britain, the major change so far has been the implementation of the Every Child Matters (ECM) (Dcsf) scheme designed to prevent repeats of the tragedy of Victoria Climb ie , the young African girl who was tortured by her family until she died. It also stems from the UNCRC. The purpose of ECM is to unite the various agencies concerned with the wellbeing of children, such as social services, schools and health workers. From this, the Common Assessment Framework was developed to enable children with additional needs to get the support they require. However, this scheme has its difficulties, particularly with from the multi-agency angle, as all the various services have a different perspective of the child and the problems each individual is facing. It can even be fair to say that each body has its own perspective on what childhood is, and these often dont match up. Even little things such as the style of observation each body undertakes on a child presents a problem, as often entirely different conclusions are drawn by each service. It is a positive though, that the government has recognized the need to unite different ways of perceiving children to c reate a more rounded, realistic analysis of children and their specific needs.Cambridge Dictionary (2009) Online Dictionary Child online Available http//dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=13062dict=CALDtopic=family-relations-in-general , CambridgeAccessed twelfth December 2009Cambridge Dictionary (2009) Online Dictionary Childhood online Available http//dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=13075dict=CALDtopic=children-and-babies , CambridgeAccessed 12th December 2009Childrens Rights Alliance (2008) online Available http//www.childrensrights.ie/files/UNCRC-CRC1989.pdf , DublinAccessed 21st DecemberDCSF (2009) Every Child Matters online Available http//www.dcsf.gov.uk/everychildmatters/about/aims/aims/ Crown, LondonAccessed 21st DecemberGamage, P (1992) Standing Conference on Education and training of teachers In Mills, J and Mills, R (ed.) (2003) Childhood Studies A Reader in perspectives of childhood London RoutledgeFalmer, page 8.Jenks, C (1990) Perspectives of Childhood S ummery. In J. Mills and R. Mills (ed.) (2003) Childhood Studies A Reader in perspectives of childhood London RoutledgeFalmer, page 30Kakar (1981).Starting points. In Nutbrown (ed.) (1996) In Childrens Rights and Early Education Paul Chapman PublishingMills, R (2003) Perspectives of Childhood Summery. In J. Mills and R. Mills (ed.) (2003) Childhood Studies A Reader in perspectives of childhood London RoutledgeFalmer, page 8.Mills, R (2003) Perspectives of Childhood Summery. In J. Mills and R. Mills (ed.) (2003) Childhood Studies A Reader in perspectives of childhood London RoutledgeFalmer, page 9.Nutbrown, C (1996) Starting points. In Nutbrown, C (ed.) Childrens Rights and Early Education Paul Chapman PublishingNSPCC (2009) What is the definition of a child? online Available http//www.nspcc.org.uk/Inform/research/questions/definition_of_a_child_wda59396.html , LondonAccessed 12th December 2009Aries, P (1960) In Palaiologou, I (2009) unpublished lecture notes from Constructions of Chi ldhood 12th OctoberSchultz, Lavenda (1990) In Palaiologou, I (2009) unpublished lecture notes from Constructions of Childhood 23rd November

Death of a Naturalist Analysis Essay -- essays research papers

Death of a NaturalistThe poem, like Seamus Heaneys work, is very nature minded in terms of context. However, he describes the toad frogs in a very aversion, sinister, and menacing way. It is about a child who collects frog spawn from the dam and collects it in jars. He is innocent and unaware of the evil that lurks in the frog spawn. We can see in the poem that the boy is young, when he remembers his teacher teaching him about the frogs, and his way of calling the frogs Daddy frog and Mammy Frog. The poem heavily appeals to the senses, which describes the more sinister separate of nature. Because when people think of nature they usually think of the more beautiful parts of it (e.g. mountains etc.) The poems appeal to senses shows how filthy and grubby nature can be describing the sight, smel...

The Complex Issue of Gun Control Essay -- gun laws, illegal firearms

Taking into account of the recent shooting sprees, the gun for hire control pass on has started again. However, people have contemplated Why does America take aim gun laws and Why ar so many states disagreeing about the restrictions that need to be put in place for civilians looking to purchase firearms. The reasoning for such reflectivity is that the fluxuating strictness of gun laws have led to several incidences within states that have strict gun laws due to the fact that the perpetrators of these incidences have purchased their firearms either from black markets, or states where the severity of gun control is at minimal levels.One of the most important aspects of the debate centered on gun legislature is the distribution of nefarious firearms to felons, criminals and American youth. Witemutes article hints that there have been several illegal gun sales from unauthorized markets and to those under the legal ages of 18 or 21 depending on the type of firearm being sold. Unfort unately, these illegal sales have resulted in an increase in gun related injuries and deaths. (55)Another aspect of this debate is in fact, the lobbyists that are pushing for more lenient or tighter gun-laws. It seems that the lobbyists that wanted stricter firearm-related laws are the ones who have witnessed the damage that criminals and the mentally unstable can really do with a gun in their hand. Those pushing for leniency when it comes to gun legislature state that firearms are trying to protect their right to carry an essential beast for those who want to venture the countryside in search for animals to shoot down for food, clothing or sport. The last aspects of the controversy are the federal and state laws that have opinionated whether or not concealed wea... ...ina in the other hand has prohibited the possession of any firearm to civilians other than sportsmen, hunters and security personnel. Even though rifles and shotguns are permitted, they require a time consuming lic ensing procedure in order to even possess one and the only citizens that can procure them are sportsmen who need these firearms to hunt and shoot skeet disks.Works CitedWintemute, Garen J. Where the Guns Come from The Gun Industry and Gun Commerce. Princeton University 2002 54-71. Web. 24 Nov. 2013.Jost, Kennth. Remembering 9/11. CQ Researcher 2 Sept. 2011 701-732Wright, Stephen E. Gun reign Laws Will Not Save Lives. Ed. Christine Watkins. Detroit Greenhaven Press, 2012. At Issues. Rpt. From Anti-Gun Group Common Sense Laws and Real Common Sense. StephenEWright.com. 2010. Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 28 Oct 2013.

The Smell :: English Literature Essays

The Smell It was another one of those lonely Monday nights, Christina was home alone, baby-sitting her brother. Her parents left to a dinner, movies, and opera, werent they just a little to lucky. So she had to stay home, with her little brother. Yup, that was it, being home alone by herself was scary enough, but with her brother, it was a nightmare. It was 1030PM, she was watching Melrose Place and her brother was upstairs, sleeping uniform an angel. Well at least I have peace now. she thought, boy would she be wrong. The night was like any other nights, late June, school turn out and no homework. It was hot and humid outside, a night for a thunderstorm. Christina had a weird feeling in her stomach, like when you think something is going to happen. She just essay to forget about and continue to watch the TV. It was 1130PM when she began to hear a noise, she ignored it at first but it became real to her that it was something, something that wanted her attention. Ignoring it didnt really work, it came mightily out of the window to her back. It was a faint canceling noise, like when a tree branch scratches against a wall, or a mouse is trying scratch something. ON and on it went, a rhythm of some sort, following the same order everywhere and over. Its just my imagination. She thought, but it was real, too real. She couldnt take it no more. She got up, walked over to window and looked out, nothing there. She came back to the couch, returning to Mad TV, the show on the TV. Relaxed a little she bagan to do fall asleep, dozing off to the rhythm of the sound. THE SOUND she screamed in her mind, it was back again, hypnotising her, WHAT AM I GOING TO DO, WHAT IS THAT She got up, weird peck hit her nostrils, it was a scent of rotting bodies, like something was old and decomposing. Coughing she walked to the window, opened it and walked back. The smell making her nauseous, she ran into the toilet and began to vomit. What is that smell?, she asked herself. And thats when she remembered it, the sound came from the window, and she opened it. Oh no, something maybe in the house she said aloud, then as quietly as possible, she went back into the room.

Psychological Manipulation in 1984 Essay -- George Orwell

Nineteen Eighty-Four, by George Or easy, is a superb novel with outstanding themes. One of the most prominent themes found in this novel is psychological manipulation. Citizens in this society are subject to ever present signs declaring BIG BROTHER IS WATCHING YOU (Orwell 1). Along with psychological manipulation, physical carry takes place. The company not only controls what people in Oceania think, but what they do as well. Technology is another important theme. Without the constant telescreens, microphones, and computers, the Party would be in all but powerless. Big Brother is the main figure of the Party. The main symbol that drives these themes is the telescreens. It is representative of the party always watching and controlling everyone at all times. psychological manipulation the Party uses on the citizens is one of the first themes Orwell exposes in this dystopian society. The Party maintains this manipulation by constantly overwhelming citizens with useless information and propaganda. And when reposition failed and written records were falsifiedwhen that happened, the claim of the Party to have improved the conditions of human life had got to be accepted, because there did not exist, and never again could exist, any standard against which it could be tested. (Orwell 82) Winston Smith, the protagonist, is having a frustrating conversation with an old man about life before the Revolution. He figures out that the Party has purposely set out to cave the peoples memories in order to make them unable to challenge what the Party claims about the present. If there is no one who remembers life before the Revolution, thusly no one can say that the Party has failed. In reality, the Party has failed by forcing people to... ...of Nineteen Eighty-Four are not going to be forgotten any time soon. Psychological manipulation is quite possibly the most realistic of the themes. In conjunction with psychological manipulation is physical control. The Party is a tota litarian government and controls every aspect of life. Technology is yet another important theme. Technology is what gives the Party their power and influence. Big Brother, the symbol, as well as the telescreens are motifs that help drive the main conflict.Works CitedKnapp, John V. Nineteen Eighty-Four Critical Survey of Long Fiction. Ed. Carl Rollyson. Hackensack NJ Salem electronic jamming Inc, 2000. 2451-2452.Magill, Frank N. Ed. Nineteen Eighty-Four Masterpieces of World Literature. New York NY Harper Collins Publishers, 1989. 582-585.Orwell, George. Nineteen Eighty-Four. New York NY Penguin Books Inc., 1977.